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От новых русских к старым деньгам, часть 13

Наконец последний ключевой персонаж истории федералистско-республиканского раскола – Джеймс Мэдисон, авторству которого принадлежит Виргинский план – документ, лёгший в основу текста конституции.

Первоначально сторонник Гамильтона и один из трёх авторов Федералистских записок (ФЗ) – сборника статей в поддержку ратификации конституции, вместе с самим Гамильтоном и Джоном Джеем; позднее он расходится с федералистами и вместе с Джефферсоном основывает Республиканскую партию.

В контексте нашего разговора он интересен как важнейший идеолог американского республиканизма.

В ФЗ №14 он пишет:

The error which limits republican government to a narrow district has been unfolded and refuted in preceding papers. I remark here only that it seems to owe its rise and prevalence chiefly to the confounding of a republic with a democracy, applying to the former reasonings drawn from the nature of the latter. The true distinction between these forms was also adverted to on a former occasion. It is, that in a democracy, the people meet and exercise the government in person; in a republic, they assemble and administer it by their representatives and agents. A democracy, consequently, will be confined to a small spot. A republic may be extended over a large region.
To this accidental source of the error may be added the artifice of some celebrated authors, whose writings have had a great share in forming the modern standard of political opinions. Being subjects either of an absolute or limited monarchy, they have endeavored to heighten the advantages, or palliate the evils of those forms, by placing in comparison the vices and defects of the republican, and by citing as specimens of the latter the turbulent democracies of ancient Greece and modern Italy.

В ФЗ №51 (ключевом документе описывающем систему сдержек и противовесов) он развивает тему:

It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citizens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the community independent of the majority that is, of the society itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at best, is but a precarious security; because a power independent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and may possibly be turned against both parties. The second method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority.

Итак из первого отрывка видно что Мэдисон противопоставляет республиканскую систему демократической под которой понимает прямую демократию. Последнюю он не жалует, считает что она подходит только для небольших государств и ведёт к нестабильности.

Второй же говорит нам что республиканская система США должна иметь противовес не только узурпации власти правителями, но и несправедливой воле большинства. Это важный момент т.к. показывает что (прямая) демократия неприемлема для Мэдисона не только по организационным причинам, но и концептуально, т.к. воля большинства может оказаться несправедливой так же как и воля отдельного правителя.



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От новых русских к старым деньгам, часть 13

Наконец последний ключевой персонаж истории федералистско-республиканского раскола – Джеймс Мэдисон, авторству которого принадлежит Виргинский план – документ, лёгший в основу текста конституции.

Первоначально сторонник Гамильтона и один из трёх авторов Федералистских записок (ФЗ) – сборника статей в поддержку ратификации конституции, вместе с самим Гамильтоном и Джоном Джеем; позднее он расходится с федералистами и вместе с Джефферсоном основывает Республиканскую партию.

В контексте нашего разговора он интересен как важнейший идеолог американского республиканизма.

В ФЗ №14 он пишет:

The error which limits republican government to a narrow district has been unfolded and refuted in preceding papers. I remark here only that it seems to owe its rise and prevalence chiefly to the confounding of a republic with a democracy, applying to the former reasonings drawn from the nature of the latter. The true distinction between these forms was also adverted to on a former occasion. It is, that in a democracy, the people meet and exercise the government in person; in a republic, they assemble and administer it by their representatives and agents. A democracy, consequently, will be confined to a small spot. A republic may be extended over a large region.
To this accidental source of the error may be added the artifice of some celebrated authors, whose writings have had a great share in forming the modern standard of political opinions. Being subjects either of an absolute or limited monarchy, they have endeavored to heighten the advantages, or palliate the evils of those forms, by placing in comparison the vices and defects of the republican, and by citing as specimens of the latter the turbulent democracies of ancient Greece and modern Italy.

В ФЗ №51 (ключевом документе описывающем систему сдержек и противовесов) он развивает тему:

It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citizens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the community independent of the majority that is, of the society itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at best, is but a precarious security; because a power independent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and may possibly be turned against both parties. The second method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority.

Итак из первого отрывка видно что Мэдисон противопоставляет республиканскую систему демократической под которой понимает прямую демократию. Последнюю он не жалует, считает что она подходит только для небольших государств и ведёт к нестабильности.

Второй же говорит нам что республиканская система США должна иметь противовес не только узурпации власти правителями, но и несправедливой воле большинства. Это важный момент т.к. показывает что (прямая) демократия неприемлема для Мэдисона не только по организационным причинам, но и концептуально, т.к. воля большинства может оказаться несправедливой так же как и воля отдельного правителя.

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The regulator took order for the search and seizure operation from Judge Purushottam B Jadhav, Sebi Special Judge / Additional Sessions Judge. Overall, extreme levels of fear in the market seems to have morphed into something more resembling concern. For example, the Cboe Volatility Index fell from its 2022 peak of 36, which it hit Monday, to around 30 on Friday, a sign of easing tensions. Meanwhile, while the price of WTI crude oil slipped from Sunday’s multiyear high $130 of barrel to $109 a pop. Markets have been expecting heavy restrictions on Russian oil, some of which the U.S. has already imposed, and that would reduce the global supply and bring about even more burdensome inflation. This ability to mix the public and the private, as well as the ability to use bots to engage with users has proved to be problematic. In early 2021, a database selling phone numbers pulled from Facebook was selling numbers for $20 per lookup. Similarly, security researchers found a network of deepfake bots on the platform that were generating images of people submitted by users to create non-consensual imagery, some of which involved children. Given the pro-privacy stance of the platform, it’s taken as a given that it’ll be used for a number of reasons, not all of them good. And Telegram has been attached to a fair few scandals related to terrorism, sexual exploitation and crime. Back in 2015, Vox described Telegram as “ISIS’ app of choice,” saying that the platform’s real use is the ability to use channels to distribute material to large groups at once. Telegram has acted to remove public channels affiliated with terrorism, but Pavel Durov reiterated that he had no business snooping on private conversations. "For Telegram, accountability has always been a problem, which is why it was so popular even before the full-scale war with far-right extremists and terrorists from all over the world," she told AFP from her safe house outside the Ukrainian capital.
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